700 lines
26 KiB
Plaintext
700 lines
26 KiB
Plaintext
== Introduction into RF Electronics
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Setup and Operation of a GSM network is not only about the configuration
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and system administration on the network elements and protocol stack,
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but also includes the physical radio transmission part.
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Basic understanding about RF (Radio Frequency) Electronics is key to
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achieving good performance of the GSM network.
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[[rf-coaxial-cabling]]
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=== Coaxial Cabling
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Coaxial cables come in many different shapes, diameters, physical
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construction, dielectric materials, and last but not least brands and
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types.
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There are many parameters that might be relevant to your particular
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installation, starting from mechanical/environmental properties such as
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temperature range, UV resilience, water/weatherproofness, flammability,
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etc.
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For the subject of this manual, we will not look at those mechanical
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properties, but look at the electrical properties instead.
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The prime electrical parameters of a coaxial cable are:
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* its attenuation over frequency and length
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* its maximum current/power handling capability
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* its propagation velocity (ignored here)
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* its screening efficiency (ignored here)
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==== Coaxial Cable Attenuation
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The attenuation of a coaxial cable is given in dB per length, commonly
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in 'dB per 100m'. This value changes significantly depending on the
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frequency of the signal transmitted via the cable. Cable manufacturers
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typically either provide tables with discrete frequency values, or
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graphs plotting the attenuation per 100m (x axis) over the frequency (y
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axis).
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FIXME: Example.
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So in order to estimate the loss of a coaxial cable, you need to
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. determine the frequency at which you will use the cable, as determined
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by the GSM frequency band of your BTS. Make sure you use the highest
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frequency that might occur, which is typically the upper end of the
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transmit band, see <<rf-gsm-bands>>
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. determine the attenuation of your cable per 100m at the given
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frequency (check the cable data sheet)
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. scale that value by the actual length of the cable
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A real cable always has connectors attached to it, please add some
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additional losses for the connectors that are attached. 0.05 dB per
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connector is a general rule of thumb for the frequencies used in GSM.
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FIXME: Example computation
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As you can see very easily, the losses incurred in coaxial cables
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between your antenna and the BTS can very quickly become significant
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factors in your overall link budget (and thus cell coverage). This is
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particularly relevant for the uplink power budget. Every dB you loose
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in the antenna cable between antenna and the BTS receiver translates
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into reduced uplink coverage.
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Using the shortest possible coaxial cabling (e.g. by mounting the BTS
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high up on the antenna tower) and using the highest-quality cabling are
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the best strategies to optimize
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WARNING: If you plan to assemble the coaxial connectors yourself, please
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make sure you ensure to have the right skills for this. Properly
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assembling coaxial connectors (whether solder-type or crimp-type)
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requires precision tools and strict process as described by the
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manufacturer. Any mechanical imprecision of connector assembly will
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cause significant extra signal attenuation.
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==== Checking coaxial cables
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If you would like to check the proper operation of a coaxial cable,
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there are several possible methods available:
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* The more expensive method would be to use a 'RF Network Analyzer' to
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measure the S11/S12 parameters or the VSWR of the cable.
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* Another option is to use a TDR (time domain reflectometer) to
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determine the VSWR. The TDR method has the added advantage that you
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can localize any damage to the cable, as such damage would cause
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reflections that can be converted into meters cable length from the
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port at which you are testing the cable. Mobile, battery-powered TDR
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for field-use in GSM Site installation are available from various
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vendors. One commonly used series is the 'Anritsu Site Master'.
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[[rf-coaxial-connectors]]
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=== Coaxial Connectors
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A coaxial connector is a connector specifically designed for mounting to
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coaxial cable. It facilitates the removable / detachable connection of
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a coaxial cable to a RF device.
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There are many different types of coaxial connectors on the market.
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The most important types of coaxial connectors in the context of GSM
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BTSs are:
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* The 'N type' connector
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* The 'SMA type' connector.
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* The '7/16' type connector
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FIXME: Images
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The above connectors are tightened by a screw-on shell. Each connector
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type has a specific designated nominal torque by which the connector
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shall be tightened. In case of uncertainty, please ask your connector
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supplier for the nominal torque.
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NOTE: Always ensure the proper mechanical condition of your RF
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connectors. Don't use RF connectors that are contaminated by dust or
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dirt, or which show significant oxidization, bent contacts or the like.
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Using such connectors poses significant danger of unwanted signal loss,
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and can in some cases even lead to equipment damage (e.g. in case of RF
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power at PA output being reflected back into the PA).
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[[rf-duplexers]]
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=== Duplexers
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A GSM BTS (or GSM TRX inside a BTS) typically exposes separate ports for
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Rx (Receive) and Tx (Transmit). This is intentionally the case, as
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this allows the users to add e.g. additional power amplifiers, filters
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or other external components into the signal path. Those components
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typically operate on either the receive or the transmit path.
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You could now connect two separate antennas to the two ports (one for
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Rx, one for Tx). This is commonly done in indoor installations with
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small rubber-type antennas directly attached to the BTS connectors.
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In outdoor installations, you typically (want to) use a single Antenna
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for Rx and Tx. This single antenna needs to be connected to the BTS
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via a device that is called 'Duplexer'.
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The 'Duplexer' is actually a frequency splitter/combiner, which is
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specifically tuned to the uplink and downlink frequencies of the GSM
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band in which you operate the BTS. As such, it has one port that passes
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only uplink frequencies between the antenna and that port, as well as
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another port that passes only downlink frequencies between antenna and
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that port.
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.Illustration of the Duplexer functionality
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[graphviz]
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----
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digraph G {
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rankdir = LR;
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BTS -> Duplexer [label="Tx band"];
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Duplexer [shape=box];
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Duplexer -> BTS [label="Rx band"];
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Duplexer -> Antenna [label ="All frequencies",dir=both];
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Antenna [shape=cds];
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}
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----
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WARNING: *The ports of a duplexer are not interchangeable*. Always make
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sure that you use the Rx port of the duplexer with the Rx port of the
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BTS, and vice-versa for Tx.
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[[rf-pa]]
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=== RF Power Amplifiers
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A RF Power Amplifier (PA) is a device that boosts the transmit power of
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your RF signal, the BTS in your case.
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RF power amplifiers come in many different characteristics. Some of the
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key characteristics are:
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Frequency range::
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A PA is typically designed for a specific frequency range. Only
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signals inside that range will be properly amplified
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Gain in dB::
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This tells you how many dB the power amplifier will increase your
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signal. `Pout = Pin + Gain`
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Maximum Output Power::
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This indicates the maximum absolute output power. For example, if the
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maximum output power is 40 dBm, and the gain is 10dBm, then an input
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signal of 30dBm will render the maximum output power. An input signal
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of 20dBm would subsequently generate only 30dBm of output power.
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Efficiency::
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The efficiency determines how much electrical power is consumed for
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the given output power. Often expressed as Power Added Efficiency
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(PAE).
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WARNING: If you add external power amplifiers to a GSM BTS or any other
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transmitter, this will invalidate the regulatory approval of the BTS.
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It is your responsibility to ensure that the combination of BTS and PA
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still fulfills all regulatory requirements, for example in terms of
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out-of-band emissions, spectrum envelope, phase error, linearity, etc!
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[graphviz]
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.Addition of a RF Power Amplifier to a GSM BTS Setup
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----
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digraph G {
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rankdir = LR;
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BTS;
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PA [label="PA 14dB gain"];
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Duplexer [shape=box];
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BTS -> PA [label="Tx 23 dBm"];
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PA -> Duplexer [label="Tx 37dBm"];
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Duplexer -> BTS [label="Rx band"];
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Duplexer -> Antenna [dir=both];
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Antenna [shape=cds];
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}
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----
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=== Antennas
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The Antenna is responsible for converting the electromagnetic waves
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between the coaxial cable and the so-called 'air interface' and
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vice-versa. The properties of an antenna are always symmetric for both
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transmission and reception.
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Antennas come in many different types and shapes. Key characteristics
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distinguishing antennas are:
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Antenna Gain::
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Expresses how much more efficient the antenna converts between cable
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and air interface. Can be expressed in dB compared to a theoretical
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isotropic radiator (dBi) or compared to a dipole antenna (dBd). Gain
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usually implies directivity.
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Frequency Band(s)::
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Antennas typically have only a relatively narrow band (or multiple
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narrow bands at which they radiate efficiently. In general, the
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higher the antenna gain, the lower the usable frequency band of the
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antenna.
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Directivity::
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Antennas radiate the energy in all three dimensions.
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Mechanical Size::
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Mechanical Size is an important factor depending on how and where the
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antenna is mounted. Size also relates to weight and wind-load.
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Wind Load::
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Expresses how much mechanical load the antenna will put on its
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support structure (antenna mast).
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Connector Type::
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Your cabling will have to use a compatible connector for the antenna.
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Outdoor antennas typically use the 7/16 type connector or an N type
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connector. Indoor antennas either N type or SMA type.
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Environmental Rating::
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Indoor antennas cannot be used outdoor, as they do not offer the level
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of protection against dust and particularly water / humidity /
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corrosion.
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Down-tilt Capability::
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Particularly sector antennas are typically installed with a fixed or
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(mechanically / electrically) variable down-tilt in order to limit the
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radius/horizon of the antenna footprint and avoid excess interference
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with surrounding cells.
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VSWR::
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The Voltage Standing Wave Ratio indicates how well the antenna is
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matched to the coaxial cable, and how much of the to-be-transmitted
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radio signal is actually converted to radio waves versus reflected
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back on the RF cable towards the transmitter. An ideal antenna has a
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VSWR of 1 (sometimes written 1:1). Real antennas are typically in the
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range of 1.2 to 2.
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Side Lobes::
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A directional antenna never radiates only in one direction but always
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has certain side lobes pointing outside of the main direction of the
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antenna. The number and strength of side lobes differ from antenna
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to antenna model.
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NOTE: Whenever installing antennas it is important to understand that
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any metallic or otherwise conductive object in their vicinity will
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inevitably alter the antenna performance. This can affect the radiation
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pattern, but also de-tune the antenna and shift its frequency band
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outside the nominal usable frequency band. It is thus best to mount
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antennas as far as practically possible from conductive elements within
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their radiation pattern
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==== Omni-directional Antennas
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Omni-directional antennas are typically thin long dipole antennas covered
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with fiberglass. They radiate with equal strength in all directions and
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thus result in a more or less circular cell footprint (assuming flat
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terrain). The shape of the radiation pattern is a torus (donut) with
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the antenna located in the center of that torus.
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Omni-directional antennas come with a variety of gains, typically from 0
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dBd to 3 dBd, 6 dBd and sometimes 9 dBd. This gain is achieved by
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compressing the radiation torus in the vertical plane.
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Sometimes, Omni-directional antennas can be obtained with a fixed
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down-tilt to limit the cell radius.
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==== Sector Antennas
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Sector antennas are used in sectorized cell setups. Sector antennas can
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have significantly higher gain than omni-directional antennas.
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Instead of mounting a single BTS with an omni-directional antenna to a
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given antenna pole, multiple BTSs with each one sector antenna are
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mounted to the same pole. This results in an overall larger radius due
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to the higher gain of the sector antennas, and also in an overall
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capacity increase, as each sector has the same capacity as a single
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omni-directional cell. And all that benefit still requires only a
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single physical site with antenna pole, power supply, back-haul cabling,
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etc.
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Experimentation and simulation has shown that typically the use of three
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sectors with antennas of an opening angle of 65 degrees results in the
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most optimal combination for GSM networks. If more sectors are being
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deployed, there is a lot of overlap between the sectors, and the amount
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of hand-overs between the BTSs is increased.
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[[rf-lna]]
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=== RF Low Noise Amplifier (LNA)
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A RF Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) is a device that amplifies the weak
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received signal. In general, LNAs are combined with band filters, to
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ensure that only those frequencies within the receive band are
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amplified, and out-of-band interferers are filtered out. A duplexer
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can already be a sufficient band-filter, depending on its
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characteristics.
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The use of a LNA typically only makes sense if you
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. have very long and/or lossy coaxial cables from your antenna to the
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BTS, and
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. can mount the duplexer + LNA close to the antenna, so that the
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amplification happens before the long/lossy coaxial line to the BTS
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Key characteristics of a LNA are:
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Frequency range::
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A LNA is typically designed for a specific frequency range. Only
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signals inside that range will be properly amplified
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Gain in dB::
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This tells you how many dB the low noise amplifier will increase your
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signal. `Pout = Pin + Gain`
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Maximum Input Power::
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This indicates the maximum RF power at the PA input before saturation.
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Noise Figure::
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This indicates how much noise this LNA will add to the signal. This
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noise will add to the interference as seen by the receiver.
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[graphviz]
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.Addition of a RF Low Noise Amplifier to the GSM BTS Setup
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----
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digraph G {
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rankdir = LR;
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BTS -> LNA [label="Rx",dir=back];
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LNA -> Duplexer [label="Rx",dir=back];
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BTS -> Duplexer [label="Tx"];
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Duplexer -> Antenna [dir=both];
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Duplexer [shape=box];
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Antenna [shape=cds];
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}
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----
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[graphviz]
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.Addition of a RF LNA + RF PA to the GSM BTS Setup
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----
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digraph G {
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rankdir = LR;
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subgraph {
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rank = same;
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PA;
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LNA;
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}
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BTS -> LNA [label="Rx",dir=back];
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BTS -> PA [label="Tx 23 dBm"];
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LNA -> Duplexer [label="Rx",dir=back];
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PA -> Duplexer [label="Tx 37 dBm"];
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Duplexer -> Antenna [dir=both];
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PA [label="PA 14dB gain"];
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Duplexer [shape=box];
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Antenna [shape=cds];
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}
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----
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As any LNA will add noise to the signal, it is generally discouraged to
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add them to the system. Instead, we recommend you to mount the entire
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BTS closer to the antenna, thereby removing the losses created by
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lengthy coaxial wire. The power supply lines and Ethernet connection to
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the BTS are far less critical when it comes to cable length.
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== Introduction into GSM Radio Planning
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The main focus of the manual you are reading is to document the
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specifics of the Osmocom GSM implementation in terms of configuration,
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system administration and monitoring. That's basically all on the
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software part.
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However, successful deployment and operation of GSM networks depends to
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a large extent on the proper design on the radio frequency (RF) side,
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including the right cabling, duplexers, antennas, etc.
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Planning and implementing GSM deployment is a science (or art) in
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itself, and in most cases it is best to consult with somebody who has
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existing experience in the field.
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There are three parts to this:
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GSM Radio Network Planning::
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This includes an analysis of the coverage area, its terrain/geography,
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the selection of the right sites for your BTSs, the antenna height, a
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path loss estimate. As a result of that process, it will be clear
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what amount of transmit power, antenna gain, cable length/type, etc.
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you should use to obtain the intended coverage.
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GSM Site Installation::
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This is the execution of what has been determined in the previous
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step. The required skills are quite different, as this is about
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properly assembling RF cables and connections, duplexers, power
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amplifiers, antennas, etc.
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Coverage testing::
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This is typically done by driving or walking in the newly-deployed GSM
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site, and checking of the coverage is as it was expected.
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NOTE: This chapter can only give you the briefest overview about the
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process used, and cannot replace the experience and skill of somebody
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with GSM RF planning and site deployment.
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[[rf-radio-net-plan]]
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=== GSM Radio Network Planning
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In GSM Radio Network Planning, the number and location of sites as well
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as type of required equipment is determined based on the coverage
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requirements.
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For the coverage of a single BTS, this is a process that takes into
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consideration:
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* the terrain that needs to be covered
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* the type of mobile stations to be supported, and particularly the
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speed of their movement (residential, pedestrians, trains, highways)
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* the possible locations for cell sites, where BTSs and Antennas can be
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placed, as well as the possible antenna mounting height
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* the equipment choices available, including
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** type and capabilities of BTS. The key criteria here is
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the downlink transmit power in dBm, and the uplink receive
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sensitivity.
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** antenna models, including gain, radiation pattern, etc.
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** RF cabling, including the key aspect of attenuation per length
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** RF duplexers, splitting the transmit and receive path
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** power amplifiers (PAs), increasing the transmit power
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** low noise amplifiers (LNAs), amplifying the received signal
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For coverage of an actual cellular network consisting of neighboring
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cells, this process also must take into consideration aspects of
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'frequency planning', which is the allocation of frequencies (ARFCNs) to
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the individual cells within the network. As part of that, interference
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generated by frequency re-use of other (distant) cells must be taken
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into consideration. The details of this would go beyond this very
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introductory text. There is plenty of literature on this subject
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available.
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[[rf-db]]
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=== The Decibel (dB) and Decibel-Milliwatt (dBm)
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RF engineering heavily depends on the Decibel (dB) as a unit to express
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attenuation (losses) or amplification (gain) impacted on radio signals.
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The dB is a logarithmic unit, it is used to express the ratio of two
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values of physical quantity. You can thus not express an absolute value
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in dB, only relative.
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NOTE: *Relative loss* (cable, connector, duplexer, splitter) *or gain*
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(amplifiers) are power *is expressed in dB*.
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In order to express an absolute value, you need to use a unit like
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'dBm', which is referencing a power of 1 mW (milli-Watt).
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NOTE: *Absolute power* like transmitter output power or receiver input
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power *is expressed in dBm*.
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[options="header",cols="15%,15%,70%"]
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.Example table of dBm values and their corresponding RF Power
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|===
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|dBm|RF Power|Comment
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|0|1 mW|
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|1|1.26 mW|transmit power of sysmoBTS 1002 when used with `max_power_red 22`
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|3|2 mW|
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|6|4 mW|
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|12|16 mW|
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|12|16 mW|
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|20|100 mW|
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|23|199 mW|Maximum transmit power of indoor sysmoBTS 1002
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|26|398 mW|
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|30|1 W|Maximum transmit power of a MS in 1800/1900 MHz band
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|33|2 W|Maximum transmit power of a MS in 850/900 MHz band
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|37|5 W|Maximum transmit power of 1 TRX in sysmoBTS 2050
|
||
|40|10 W|Maximum transmit power of sysmoBTS 1100
|
||
|===
|
||
|
||
[[rf-gsm-bands]]
|
||
=== GSM Frequency Bands
|
||
|
||
GSM can operate in a variety of frequency bands. However,
|
||
internationally only the following four bands have been deployed in
|
||
actual networks:
|
||
|
||
[options="header"]
|
||
.Table of GSM Frequency Bands
|
||
|===
|
||
|Name|Uplink Band|Downlink Band|ARFCN Range
|
||
|GSM 850|824 MHz .. 849 MHz|869 MHz .. 894 MHz|128 .. 251
|
||
|E-GSM 900|880 MHz .. 915 MHz|925 MHz .. 960 MHz|0 .. 124, 975 .. 1023
|
||
|DCS 1800|1710 MHz .. 1785 MHz|1805 MHz .. 1880 MHz|512 .. 885
|
||
|PCS 1900|1850 MHz .. 1910 MHz|1930 MHz .. 1990 MHz|512 .. 810
|
||
|===
|
||
|
||
[[rf-path-loss]]
|
||
=== Path Loss
|
||
|
||
A fundamental concept in planning any type of radio communications link
|
||
is the concept of 'Path Loss'. Path Loss describes the amount of
|
||
signal loss (attenuation) between a receive and a transmitter.
|
||
|
||
As GSM operates in frequency duplex on uplink and downlink, there is
|
||
correspondingly an 'Uplink Path Loss' from MS to BTS, and a 'Downlink
|
||
Path Loss' from BTS to MS. Both need to be considered.
|
||
|
||
It is possible to compute the path loss in a theoretical ideal
|
||
situation, where transmitter and receiver are in empty space, with no
|
||
surfaces anywhere nearby causing reflections, and with no objects or
|
||
materials in between them. This is generally called the 'Free Space
|
||
Path Loss'.
|
||
|
||
Estimating the path loss within a given real-world terrain/geography is
|
||
a hard problem, and there are no easy solutions. It is impacted, among
|
||
other things, by
|
||
|
||
* the height of the transmitter and receiver antennas
|
||
* whether there is line-of-sight (LOS) or non-line-of-sight (NLOS)
|
||
* the geography/terrain in terms of hills, mountains, etc.
|
||
* the vegetation in terms of attenuation by foliage
|
||
* any type of construction, and if so, the type of materials used in
|
||
that construction, the height of the buildings, their distance, etc.
|
||
* the frequency (band) used. Lower frequencies generally expose better
|
||
NLOS characteristics than higher frequencies.
|
||
|
||
The above factors determine on the one hand side the actual attenuation
|
||
of the radio wave between transmitter and receiver. On the other
|
||
hand, they also determine how many reflections there are on this path,
|
||
causing so-called 'Multipath Fading' of the signal.
|
||
|
||
Over decades, many different radio propagation models have been designed
|
||
by scientists and engineers. They might be based on empirical studies
|
||
condensed down into relatively simple models, or they might be based on
|
||
ray-tracing in a 3D model of the terrain.
|
||
|
||
Several companies have developed (expensive, proprietary) simulation
|
||
software that can help with this process in detail. However, the
|
||
results of such simulation also depend significantly on the availability
|
||
of precise 3D models of the geography/terrain as well as the building
|
||
structure in the coverage area.
|
||
|
||
In absence of such simulation software and/or precise models, there are
|
||
several models that can help, depending on the general terrain:
|
||
|
||
[[path-loss-models]]
|
||
.List of common path loss models
|
||
[options="header",cols="10%,10%,20%,60%"]
|
||
|===
|
||
|Type|Sub-Type|Bands|Name
|
||
|Terrain|-|850, 900, 1800, 1900|ITU terrain model
|
||
|Rural|Foliage|850, 900, 1800, 1900|One woodland terminal model
|
||
|City|Urban|850, 900|Okumura-Hata Model for Urban Areas
|
||
|City|Suburban|850, 900|Okumura-Hata Model for Suburban Areas
|
||
|City|Open|850, 900|Okumura-Hata Model for Open Areas
|
||
|City|Urban|1800, 1900|COST-231 Hata Model
|
||
|Indoor|-|900, 1800, 1900|ITU model for indoor attenuation
|
||
|===
|
||
|
||
In <<path-loss-models>> you can see a list of commonly-used path loss
|
||
models. They are typically quite simple equations which only require
|
||
certain parameters like the distance of transmitter and receiver as well
|
||
as the antenna height, etc. No detailed 3D models of the terrain are
|
||
required.
|
||
|
||
FIXME: Example calculations
|
||
|
||
[[rf-link-budget]]
|
||
=== Link Budget
|
||
|
||
The link budget consists of the total budget of all elements in the
|
||
telecommunication system between BTS and MS (and vice-versa).
|
||
|
||
This includes
|
||
|
||
* antenna gains on both sides
|
||
* coaxial cabling between antenna and receiver/transmitter
|
||
* losses in duplexers, splitters, connectors, etc
|
||
* gain of any amplifiers (PA, LNA)
|
||
* path loss of the radio link between the two antennas
|
||
|
||
The simplified link budget equations looks like this:
|
||
|
||
Rx Power (dBm) = Tx Power (dBm) + Gains (dB) − Losses (dB)
|
||
|
||
Gains is the sum of all gains, including
|
||
|
||
* Gain of the transmitter antenna
|
||
* Gain of the receiver antenna
|
||
* Gain of any PA (transmitter) or LNA (receiver)
|
||
|
||
Losses is the sum of all losses, including
|
||
|
||
* Loss of any cabling and/or connectors on either side
|
||
* Loss of any passive components like duplexers/splitters on either side
|
||
* Path Loss of the radio link
|
||
|
||
Using the Link Budget equation and resolving it for the path loss will
|
||
give you an idea of how much path loss on the radio link you can afford
|
||
while still having a reliable radio link. Resolving the path loss into
|
||
a physical distance based on your path loss model will then give you an
|
||
idea about the coverage area that you can expect.
|
||
|
||
The Rx Power substituted in the Link budget equation is determined by
|
||
the receiver sensitivity. It is customary to add some some safety
|
||
margin to cover for fading.
|
||
|
||
==== Uplink Link Budget
|
||
|
||
[graphviz]
|
||
----
|
||
digraph G {
|
||
rankdir = LR;
|
||
MS -> MSAnt -> Path -> BTSAnt -> Cabling -> Duplexer -> Cable -> BTS;
|
||
MSAnt [label="MS Antenna"];
|
||
BTSAnt [label="BTS Antenna"];
|
||
}
|
||
----
|
||
|
||
The transmit power of a MS depends on various factors, such as the MS
|
||
Power Class, the frequency band and the modulation scheme used.
|
||
|
||
[options="header"]
|
||
.Typical MS transmit power levels
|
||
|===
|
||
|Power Class|Band|Modulation|Power
|
||
|4|850 / 900|GMSK|33 dBm (2 W)
|
||
|1|1800 / 1900|GMSK|30 dBm (1 W)
|
||
|E2|850 / 900|8PSK|27 dBm (0.5 W)
|
||
|E2|1800 / 1900|8PSK|26 dBm (0.4 W)
|
||
|===
|
||
|
||
The minimum reference sensitivity level of a normal GSM BTS is specified
|
||
in 3GPP TS 05.05 and required to be at least -104 dBm. Most modern BTSs
|
||
outperform this significantly.
|
||
|
||
FIXME: Example calculation (spreadsheet screenshot?)
|
||
|
||
==== Downlink Link Budget
|
||
|
||
[graphviz]
|
||
----
|
||
digraph G {
|
||
rankdir = LR;
|
||
BTS -> Cable -> Duplexer -> Cabling -> BTSAnt -> Path -> MSAnt -> MS;
|
||
MSAnt [label="MS Antenna"];
|
||
BTSAnt [label="BTS Antenna"];
|
||
}
|
||
----
|
||
|
||
The transmit power of the BTS depends on your BTS model and any possible
|
||
external power amplifiers used.
|
||
|
||
The minimum reference sensitivity level of a GSM MS is specified in 3GPP
|
||
TS 05.05 and can typically be assumed to be about -102 dB.
|
||
|
||
FIXME: Example calculation (spreadsheet screenshot?)
|
||
|
||
|
||
==== Optimization of the Link Budget
|
||
|
||
If the coverage area determined by the above procedure is insufficient,
|
||
you can try to change some of the parameters, such as
|
||
|
||
* increasing transmit power by adding a bigger PA
|
||
* increasing antenna gain by using a higher gain antenna
|
||
* reducing cable losses by using better / shorter coaxial cables
|
||
* increasing the height of your antenna
|